Research: Inclusion for neurodivergent pupils needs lived-experience trainers and getting the wider school environment right

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The government insists its SEND reforms will deliver a more inclusive system, with mainstream schools better equipped to meet the needs of all pupils, including those who are neurodivergent. But as families know all too well, warm words about inclusion mean very little without the conditions that make inclusion possible: time, training, staffing, stability, and a school culture that genuinely understands neurodiversity.

Recent evidence from the Neurodivergence Taskforce and the interim evaluation of the Partnerships for Inclusion of Neurodiversity in Schools (PINS) programme paints a mixed picture. While ministers talk about “evidence‑based reform”, many of the findings and recommendations from these and other government-backed research programmes are barely visible in the proposals now on the table in the Schools White Paper .

This is why we have asked Dr Lorna Hamilton and her colleagues to write about their research‑grounded perspective on what truly makes inclusion work. Their findings, drawn from autistic young people, families and teachers, offer a clear, practice‑based set of recommendations to inform SEND reform. They highlight what schools need to do to deliver meaningful inclusion, and—importantly—what is at risk if reforms prioritise structural tidiness over lived experience.

Neurodivergence training in schools must include lived experience: by Lorna Hamilton, Anna Cook, Sue Mesa, Alice Boddy

The government’s proposed SEND reforms aim to make inclusive teaching the norm, so all pupils can feel supported and reach their potential. While this vision is positive, its success will depend on how the changes are put into practice in everyday classrooms.

Based on our research with autistic young people, their families and teachers, we believe real progress will only happen if attention is paid to the wider school environment, including time, training and support for staff. Getting these foundations right is essential if mainstream schools are truly to become places where neurodivergent children feel valued and able to achieve.

Whole-school inclusion: the need for time, training and resources

Outcomes for neurodivergent pupils depend on everyday practice. Children and young people tell us that what matters most are trusted relationships with adults who understand neurodiversity, and school environments that are predictable and flexible. Inclusion works best when schools can anticipate needs rather than react when things go wrong. Our research shows that teachers want to be inclusive. However, many say they simply don’t have the time, training or resources needed to feel confident putting inclusive approaches into practice.

School staff have told us that training relevant to autism and neurodivergence is common, but highly variable in quality and duration. Some report never having received any relevant training.¹

Meanwhile, autistic young people say there are substantial differences in how well secondary school staff understand neurodivergence, and this affects how safe they feel to ask for help when they need it.² Many training packages currently available to UK schools present neurodivergent children’s differences negatively as ‘deficits’. There is also very limited training provision that is designed in collaboration with neurodivergent young people.³

The commitment to a government-backed national SEND training programme “developed with experts” is welcome. To rebuild trust, clarity is needed about how pupil voice, practice-based experience and research evidence are included in its development.

What is needed: shared experience and staff learning together

Even the best training cannot transform school culture on its own. Many teachers describe feeling stretched to the limits. When staff are under pressure, planning personalised support becomes harder, and schools are pushed into crisis management, rather than preventing problems arising in the first place.

“I find that I am lacking in time to provide the high-quality individualised support that is expected and deserved. I see it as a priority, therefore I have to cut back on other areas of my role, for example research and lesson planning in general.”
Secondary school teacher

Our research also found that teachers who had more experience working with autistic pupils, or who interacted with neurodivergent people in their personal lives, felt more confident and skilled in inclusive practice. ^1,4 However, schools often lack the time and space for staff to learn from one another through mentoring and reflective practice, creating a missed opportunity to maximise the benefits of shared experience among staff teams.

As one teacher pointed out:

“Mistakes are an opportunity to learn, sure, but it’s a pretty poor deal for the person on the receiving end of the mistake.”
Primary school teacher

Creating genuinely inclusive schools requires long-term investment, with time for staff to learn together, opportunities to deepen understanding through shared experience, and systems that support proactive, whole-school approaches. Whether the proposed reforms can deliver this kind of joined-up, sustainable change remains to be seen. What is clear is that, if mainstream schools are to work for all neurodivergent children and young people, the conditions that enable inclusion must be built into the system itself.

What “protective microsystems” are needed to make inclusion bases truly inclusive?

Across our research in secondary schools, autistic pupils based in well‑resourced specialist centres within mainstream schools (referred to as “inclusion bases” in the proposed SEND reforms) had better attendance, academic progress and sense of belonging than similar pupils without this support.⁵

These centres act as “protective microsystems” providing a range of supports, such as adaptations to the school environment and specialist expertise. Crucially, they work best when closely connected to the whole school rather than isolated units.⁶ Our research also shows that outcomes depend less on a child’s diagnosis or placement and more on everyday school conditions: calm environments, predictable routines, trusted relationships, consistent support, and staff who feel confident with time to plan and adjust teaching.

The evidence suggests these bases can work well if they are used to build staff expertise, improve everyday classroom practice, and support pupils to feel they belong.

This aligns with the White Paper’s wider aim of moving from “sidelined to included” and enabling more children with SEND to succeed in mainstream education. However, our findings also raise important questions for any reform to the SEND system.

The White Paper sets out a tiered system: Universal support (inclusive classroom teaching), Targeted/Targeted Plus (including school-funded Support Bases), and Specialist support (linked to EHCPs and delivered through LA-commissioned Specialist Bases and nationally defined Specialist Provision Packages).

While the intention is to strengthen high-quality inclusive practice and enable children to access mainstream education, this depends on implementation. A mixed funding model risks variability, gaps between levels, and fragmented provision. Without consistent resourcing and whole-school integration, inclusion bases may become separate spaces rather than drivers of meaningful inclusion.

Where do we go next?

“There needs to be a shift to making the education system work for children, not the other way around”.
Secondary school teacher

If this moment is to lead to lasting change for neurodivergent children and young people, action is needed at every level of the system. Based on our research, we have identified several priorities for policymakers, education leaders and researchers:

Make neurodiversity-affirming practice a core professional competence.
Understanding and valuing neurodiversity should be a fundamental part of what it means to be a teacher. This needs to be embedded from the very start of a teaching career, through Initial Teacher Training and the Early Career Framework. Training should consistently focus on strengths and individuality, recognising neurological difference as a normal part of human diversity — not something to be fixed or hidden.
Develop neurodivergent-inclusive SEND training
Develop SEND training that clearly shows how research evidence, professional expertise, and crucially the voices of neurodivergent children and young people are shaping its content. Families and school staff need confidence that training is relevant, up-to-date and rooted in first-hand experience.
Give staff the time to do inclusion well.
Inclusion cannot happen on good intentions alone. Schools need protected time for ongoing professional development, peer mentoring, and shared problem-solving with other services.
Be clear about what will make inclusion bases work.
Inclusion bases within schools will only work if their core components are clearly defined and properly funded, including staffing levels, planned pathways in and out of mainstream classes, and strong links with families. There should be clarity about what must be in place for these provisions to deliver inclusion, rather than becoming separate spaces on the margins of school life.
Build the evidence on what works.
There is a pressing need to strengthen the evidence base on effective SEND provision. This means investing in robust, co-produced research that understands how changes are implemented and who they work for; examining not only attainment, but also wellbeing and sense of belonging as key outcomes.

This article is based on the authors’ research: Supporting Neurodivergent Pupils in Mainstream Schools: A Mixed-Methods Survey of School Staff in the United Kingdom

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About the authors

Lorna Hamilton is Caucasian, with a centre-parted blonde bob and glasses

Lorna Hamilton is Professor of Developmental Psychology and Inclusive Education at York St John University.

She conducts participatory research with neurodivergent children and young people to understand how educational experiences influence identity development and wellbeing, especially around points of transition.

Anna Cook has long dark hair. She is Caucasian, and is smiling

Dr Anna Cook is a researcher and co-production practitioner specialising in lived experience-led approaches to inclusive education for autistic young people.

With a psychology background, she contributes to research and community work, integrating her neurodivergent perspective into evidence-informed, collaborative service design.

Sue Mesa has a short dark bob. She is Caucasian and is smiling broadly

Sue Mesa is a Senior Lecturer in Occupational Therapy.

She spent over a decade in clinical practice before moving into academia. Her specialism is learning disability and autism.

Her most recent research centres on experiences of mainstream schooling for autistic young people, using longitudinal designs.

Alica Boddy is Caucasian with copper coloured wavy hair

Alice Boddy is a neurodivergent researcher and co-production practitioner committed to lived experience-led approaches to inclusive education and evidence-informed service design for autistic children and young people. She holds an MSc in Psychology from the University of Surrey, and has also contributed to priority-setting research through the Shape Research, Change Lives project.

References

Hamilton, L. G., & Cook, A. (2026). Supporting neurodivergent pupils in mainstream schools: A mixed-methods survey of school staff in the United Kingdom. Neurodiversity, 4. https://doi.org/10.1177/27546330261419277
Mesa, S., & Hamilton, L.G. (2022). School transitions for autistic young people in mainstream settings. Project report available at: https://ray.yorksj.ac.uk/id/eprint/7063/1/School-transitions-for-autistic-pupils-report.pdf
Mesa, S., Linley, E., Hobman, T., & Hamilton, L.G. (2026). Neurodiversity-affirming autism training for school staff: A scoping review. Preprint available at: https://osf.io/download/hg54r/
Cook, A., & Boddy, A. (2026). Building teacher capacity for inclusion practice with autistic pupils: A mixed-methods study of self-efficacy, training, attitudes and school context. Preprint available at: https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/hfr57
Cook, A. & Boddy, A. (2026). The Impact of Specialist Resource Centres on Autistic Pupils’ Experience of Mainstream School. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613261426099
Boddy, A. & Cook, A. (2026). Specialist Resource Centres as Protective Microsystems: A Qualitative Comparative Case Study of Autistic Pupils’ Experiences in Mainstream Secondary Schools. [Preprint] PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/h8zgq

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Special Needs Jungle was founded in 2008 as a personal SEN blog by Tania Tirraoro. It is now a multi-author, award-winning site covering special needs, disability, mental health and rare conditions in children & young people birth-25 years.

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